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UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS BULLETIN 



Vol. VI. 



No. 1 



[Entered Feb. 14. 1902, at Urbana, 111., as second-class matter under Act of Congress 

July 16, 1894] 



BULLETIN NO. 1 

PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND 

THEIR EQUIPMENT, WITH 

SPECIAL REFERENCE TO 

HIGH SCHOOLS 

BY 
HORACE A. HOLLISTER. 




UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION. 



URBANA, ILLINOIS 

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY 



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CONTENTS. 

Page 

Frontispiece 2 

Prefatory Statement 4 

List of Illustrations with notes 5 

Introductory 6 

The School Site 12 

General Features of the High School Building 12 

Planning and Arrangement of School Rooms 21 

Furnishing and Equipping the High School Building 26 

Laboratories in Small High Schools 28 

Artistic Effect in High School Architecture 28 

Heating and Ventilation 32 

Provisions for Safety in Case of Fire 35 

The School Janitor and Engineer 37 

References .... 37 



PREFATORY STATEMENT. 

This bulletin is the first of a proposed series to be issued 
under the auspices of the School of Education of the University 
of Illinois. The aim of these bulletins is to furnish to the teachers 
and school authorities of the State such information of practical 
significance on educational matters as the University through 
experimentation and observation may be able to gather from time 
to time. At present the departments of education and, of psychol- 
ogy, as well as the various departments that offer the subject mat- 
ter for the training of secondary teachers and supervisors, are 
engaged in work that has a direct bearing on the general problems 
of education and the application of methods and principles to exist- 
ing needs. It is hoped that from time to time bulletins setting 
forth the work and results obtained by such departments may be 
issued and that they may prove of benefit to those interested in the 
practical and theoretical aspects of secondary education. The 
present bulletin, by Professor Hollister, embodies the observations 
gained by a wide experience as High School Visitor in the State. 

S. S. C. 
March 15, 1909. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

I. Frontispiece, The Hillsboro, 111., High School. This is a 
type of school worthy of imitation. It is modern in 
construction, and is located in a natural grove at one 
side of the town. The site was selected for its fitness 
rather than as a central location. 

II. Highland Park Township High School. This building 
cost $52,000. The entire cost, including grounds and 
equipment, was $87,759.30. It will accommodate about 
400 pupils. 

Ill, IV, and V. Floor plans of Highland Park High School. 

VI. Commercial Room, LaSalle-Peru Township High School. 

VII. Mt. Vernon Township High School. This is one of our 
best smaller high schools. It will seat 225 pupils. The 
cost was $47,000 including the lot which is 200 ft. by 
325 feet. 

VIII, IX, and X. Floor plans of the Mt. Vernon High School. 

XI. Biological laboratory, LaSalle-Peru Township High 
School. 

XII. Laboratories of the Quincy, 111., High School. This is 
given because of the excellent arrangement of these 
laboratories. 

XIII. High school library room, Minonk. This shows what may 

be done in a small town. A wealthy citizen established 
this library. 

XIV. Principal's office, Murphysboro Township High School, 

suggesting a suitable equipment for such a room. 

XV. Cut showing entrance to Evanston Township High School, 
illustrating effective architectural decoration for the 
exterior. 

XVI. Cut showing wood- working and machine shop, LaSalle- 

Peru Township High School. 

XVII. Cut of John Swaney Consolidated School, McNabb, Illi- 

nois. This is a country school containing, besides 
school rooms, laboratories, a wood-shop, an assembly 
hall, its own water and gas plant. It has a campus of 
24 acres. 



INTRODUCTORY. 

Our public high schools are of such recent development that 
we still have much of crudity and incompleteness in them. Per- 
haps at no point has this lack been so marked in the past as in 
the construction and equipment of buildings for high school pur- 
poses. It has been quite the fashion, indeed, to consider all 
school buildings as of a common type in their interior arrange- 
ments, whether they were to be used for elementary or high 
school work. 

In very recent years, however, there is evidence of a marked 
change favoring a better type of buildings as well as more 
attention to their proper adaptation to the nature and organization 
of the school. This change manifests itself in a majority of cases 
where new buildings are being constructed, although not always 
in a satisfactory way. The rapid growth of the schools and the 
wider range and variety of work undertaken by them is one cause 
of the unsatisfactory results. Lack of a sufficiently comprehen- 
sive view of the scope of modern high school work on the part of 
architects who plan the new structures is another cause. 

The educational officer or expert employed to supervise the 
school is too frequently not consulted in the preparation of plans. 
In a majority of cases, perhaps, even if consulted, he would be 
found wanting. He has devoted his whole time and preparation 
to the problems more directly connected with the instructional 
and disciplinary work of the school. 

At the present time the conditions existing in the United 
States are such as to call for increased attention to the material 
surroundings and equipment of schools on the part of principals, 
superintendents and all school officials. According to data com- 
piled in 1893*, only three or four of the states make any thing 
like a resonable provision for conditions of safety and sanitation 
for school buildings and grounds. Among these Massachusetts 
may fairly be said to lead. A reasonably good system of inspec- 
tion is provided for, and buildings are pretty carefully guarded 
with reference to ventilation and the safety of steam boilers and 



♦Sanitary Legislation Respecting Schools. Commissioner of Education Report, 1893-4. pp. 
1301-1349. 



PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND THEIR EQUIPMENT 7 

tire escapes. At the date above given one third of the states 
took some precaution against fire. Some great disasters since 
have caused a decided increase in this number. One fourth of 
the states guarded against contagion; one sixth required suitable 
sanitaries, although often the specifications were vague; two, 
Massachusetts and Connecticut, insisted on proper ventilation; 
while only one, and that Kentucky, prescribed the space to be 
alloted each pupil and made some provision in regard to proper 
lighting and adjustable seats. But little advance, outside of the 
large cities, has since been made, except in the matter of fire 
escapes. 

Thus far comparatively few architects in this country seem 
to have made a thorough study of the problems of school architec- 
ture. Foremost among these are Wheelwright of Boston and 
Briggs of Connecticut. Felix Clay of England has given us a 
work on Modern School Buildings that is a decided addition to 
good literature on this subject. Students in other fields of educa- 
tion have made some valuable contributions on the subject. 
Among these are Edward R. Shaw in his work on School Hygiene, 
and Dr. W. H. Burnham of the Department of Education at Clark 
University. 

The situation in our own state is far from ideal. While we 
have a number of architectural firms and some city architects who 
have achieved some success, yet there are very few buildings 
even among the best where serious flaws are not to be found 
when these structures are measured by the highest standards to be 
attained under modern conditions of school administration. We 
are entirely lacking in any efficient system of inspection of school 
buildings. 

It is in view of such conditions that the School of Education 
of the University of Illinois offers to school officials and others 
interested this bulletin on the subject of public high school build- 
ings. This is done not with the thought that the last word is 
here presented on the subject, but that sufficient suggestions may 
be given to lead toward better results in this very important 
phase of our educational development. 

Note.— Much of the material here used was first prepared by the 
author in a book on High School Administration now in press, — D. C. 
Heath & Co., Boston. 



UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 




PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND THEIR EQUIPMENT 



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THE SCHOOL SITE. 

In making provision for the proper home of a high school or 
other secondary institution the primary consideration is the 
school site. In determining a location it very frequently happens 
that the chief consideration is to find a point near the center of 
the population which is to be tributary to this particular building. 
While a location that is readily and about equally accessible from 
all points in a given school district is a very important matter, 
yet it is not so vitally important as to be allowed to outweigh all 
other considerations. 

The general surroundings need also to be taken into account, 
as well as the approaches to the school. All authorities on the 
subject agree that a slightly elevated ground, with a natural 
rather than a made soil, free from organic impurities, and well 
drained, is most desirable. Modern tendencies of secondary 
education also call for large grounds, with room for athletic sports 
and a school garden, as well as shade trees, grass, shrubs and 
flowers. Where conditions require it, however, school garden and 
athletic grounds may be detached from the school site proper 
without serious loss in effectiveness. 

Another point emphasized by all is that the neighborhood of 
the building should be free from noisy, dirty or ill-smelling indus- 
tries. High buildings should not stand so near as to cut off light 
and air nor echo the sounds of the street back to the class rooms. 
Care should be taken that pupils be not required to pass danger- 
ous crossings, or places of resort for immoral or boisterous 
classes of people. The building should be set well back on the 
grounds, or at least so as to permit the best possible arrangement 
of the remaining space in adapting it to its proper uses; and as 
far as practicable it should be protected from cold winds. 

GENERAL FEATURES OF THE HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING. 

The building itself should be the very best which the finan- 
cial ability of the district will permit. The following description 
of an ideal house given by Dr. William H. Burnham in World's 
Work, Vol. II. pp. 866 to 871, and also quoted in the report of the 
Committee on School Hygiene of the Worcester Public Educa- 
tional Association, in Pedagogical Seminary,* Vol. XIII, pp. 230 
to 244, will serve to get before us the chief points to be considered 

*Source of present quotation 



PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND THEIR EQUIPMENT 13 

in planning a building: "The building is entirely of masonry and 
steel construction, built of the best glazed brick and practically 
fireproof. It is two stories high and built in the form of the 
letter K. 

Heating and ventilation are by a combination of the so-called 
plenum and exhaust systems. Two hundred and fifty cubic feet of 
air space is provided for each pupil, and thirty-five cubic feet of 
fresh air suitably warmed and moistened is supplied each pupil 
per minute. Distribution of the warm air and ventilation are en- 
sured by exhaust fans placed near the top of ventilating shafts, 
and foul air is drawn from each apartment. The arrangement of the 
warm air registers and the foul air outlets in each room is made 
with regard to the best distribution of the fresh air, in the recita- 
tion rooms the inlets being placed eight feet above the floor, usual- 
ly on an interior wall, and the outlets near the floor on the same 
side. The main horizontal duct for warm air extends under the 
whole of the assembly room, and fresh air is introduced by a reg- 
ister under each seat, while the outlets are at the top of the room. 

In the basement, besides the heating and ventilating appara- 
tus, are storerooms, lunch room, playrooms, gymnasium, shower 
baths, toilet rooms, and ventilated lockers for the wraps of each 
pupil. The plumbing is all open, the sanitaries of the best modern 
style and ventilated through a special exhaust duct. The light 
in the classrooms comes from the left or from the left and rear, 
and is regulated by curtains of neutral gray green running up 
from the bottom as well as letting down from the top. The ratio 
of window surface to floor surface is 1 to 4. All the exit doors 
open outward. 

Especially noteworthy are the arrangements for cleanliness. 
The fresh air introduced to the heating apparatus is filtered 
through a screen of cheese cloth so that dust and other impuri- 
ties are removed before it enters the fan room. The school-rooms 
are really cleaned every day. There is no sweeping or dry dust- 
ing. The hardwood floors are cleaned every night by a carpet 
brush dipped in a special oil preparation. The oil makes the dust 
adhere to the brush, and in this way it is not stirred up, but re- 
moved from the room, and the floor is improved each time it is 
cleaned so that once a week it can be washed thoroughly without 
injury. Or the simpler and more practical method of using a 
small amount of kerosene oil with a so-called "dustless brush" is 



14 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 

adopted. At intervals the rooms are disinfected. The furniture 
is wiped off with a moist cloth. The chalk dust is reduced to a 
minimum by the use of the best crayons and by cleaning the black- 
boards, and the little dust made is caught in removable troughs. 
Thus each morning the children come into a schoolroom actually 
clean. There are no free text-books used promiscuously, no 
slates, and no drinking cups; but on each floor is a drinking 
fountain where the children can drink from a continuous stream 
of water without the need of cups. Wire matting at the doors, 
individual lockers for wraps, and the facilities for bathing do 
much to insure clean clothing and clean children." 

We are told by Dr. Burnham that each of the points men- 
tioned as making up this ideal structure is to be found actually 
exemplified in some building now in use, although no one build- 
ing may be said to embody them all. 

Of course it is not to be expected that all these conditions 
will be attained, even imperfectly, in very many buildings; but 
they indicate the points to be looked after in connection with the 
planning and construction of school buildings. The importance 
of this phase of our educational work can hardly be overestimated. 
The well known relationship of good sanitary and otherwise whole- 
some conditions and surroundings to physical and moral health- 
fulness is sufficient reason to justify such outlay of public funds 
as may be necessary in order to minimize, to the greatest possible 
extent, such possible evils. To do this there must be expert 
supervision and inspection with authority to enforce reasonable 
compliance with necessary standards. In this respect, as we have 
seen, the United States has done but little as yet. European 
States are considerably in advance of us. During the Russo-Japa- 
nese war the attention of the world was forcibly attracted to the 
important bearing which proper sanitary engineering has on the 
success of an army in the field. How much more must it be true 
that in a great and prosperous nation the real perpetuation of 
greatness is to depend upon the conditions with regard to sanita- 
tion and moral atmosphere under which the education of our 
youth is to be conducted. 

Among other important matters is the question of building 
materials. It is generally agreed among experts that school 
buildings should be as nearly fireproof as possible, hence masonry 
and steel are considered ideal materials. The educational officer 



PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND THEIR EQUIPMENT 



15 




16 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 

having the supervision of these things will need to know defi- 
nitely what is to enter into the building plan both as to materials 
and as to floor space. In the interests of safety he will insist on 
ample and well lighted corridors; two stairways at opposite ends 
of the corridors and of ample width, with landings half way up, 
to be constructed of metal or at least of oak; no closets under 
stairways to become receptacles for combustible matter; in case a 
third story is necessary, two stairways all the way up, and a fire 
escape at an intermediate point, and readily accessible from the 
second and third floors. In the interests of good sanitation he 
will want to be sure of good drainage; of the most approved con- 
struction of closets, lavatories and baths, with a separate system 
of ventilation for closets; of a system of heating and ventilating 
which will insure plenty of pure air properly tempered and of 
the right degree of humidity; of lighting facilities adequate for 
gloomy days and for rooms in all parts of the building which are 
to be used for study or recitation and laboratory work; of venti- 
lated metal lockers to be placed, when practicable, in basement 
rooms provided with means of heating in order to dry wet cloth- 
ing, the latter arrangement including floor grates or heated plat- 
forms where wet shoes and skirts may be dried; of the proper 
means for removing dust, cleansing floors and disinfecting. He 
will see that there are emergency or retiring rooms for the use of 
pupils or teachers who are ill; and in districts where distance 
makes it desirable he will be able to see that proper lunch facilities 
are provided and operated in a strictly hygienic manner. In the 
interests of physical training he should know what is best in 
athletics, the necessary arrangement of grounds, the equipment 
of a gymnasium and the best kind of training in it, the advantages 
and proper use of the swimming pool if such a thing is practicable. 
Some of the facts in regard to high school buildings which 
should be impressed upon the public mind are: 

1. That the building should be planned for the specific work 
of the school which is to use it. 

2. That whenever practicable a separate building should be 
assigned to the use of the high school, or at least to the high 
school and grammar grades. 

3. That a sanitarily heated and ventilated building is a mat- 
ter of real economy. 



PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND THEIR EQUIPMENT 17 






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PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND THEIR EQUIPMENT 21 

4. That the system of ventilation should furnish at least 30 
cu. ft. of fresh air per minute to each pupil in the school. 

5. That the average humidity of the athmosphere should not 
go below 50 percent. 

6. That light should be introduced chiefly from the left side, 
which should be the longer side, with possibly some from behind 
the pupils, as they are seated in the schoolroom. 

7. That the transparent glass surface should be one-fourth 
the floor surface of the room to be lighted, extending as near as 
possible to the ceiling and at least four feet from the floor, and that 
the darkest part of a room where reading or studying is done 
should receive an illumination of not less than 50 candle metres. 

8. That with a proper degree of humidity an even temperature 
of 68° to 70° should bd maintained. 

9. That floating dust in a schoolroom is one of the chief 
means of distributing harmful bacteria. 

It is a good thing also for those who have the management of 
school affairs to know that where the heating is by steam it is a 
comparatively simple matter to provide the school building with 
power for use in connection with the shops or even for the pro- 
duction of lights for the school. 

Planning and Arrangement of School Rooms. 

Whoever has these matters in hand should know how to dis- 
pose the different class rooms, laboratories, studios and work- 
shops in order to secure the best results as to convenience, light- 
ing and general comfort. He should know, for instance, that 
direct sunlight is desirable in physical and biological laboratories; 
that a drawing studio needs a north light; that the shop work 
should not interfere with class room exercises. He will know how 
best to locate the offices of principal and teachers; the store rooms 
for school supplies, and those for housekeeping utensils and sup- 
plies; the provisions to be made for reference libraries; the ar- 
rangement of lecture rooms and work rooms in connection with 
the science laboratories. One of the considerations which is of 
vital importance to a high school is the problem of an assembly hall 
and study rooms. In the smaller centers it is found desirable to com- 
bine these two functions in the same room. It frequently happens in 
doing so, however, that not enough space is allowed for this pur- 
pose, to say nothing about allowing for the future growth of the 



22 



UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 




PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND THEIR EQUIPMENT 23 

high school. Felix Clay, an English authority, estimates that in 
planning the assembly hall at least six to eight square feet of floor 
space per pupil should be provided. This is hardly sufficient as 
most of our schools are organized, with these rooms used for both 
study and assembly purposes. Ten to fourteen feet would be a 
fairer estimate for such conditions. 

In the larger schools it is often found practicable to arrange 
for study rooms on the different floors, so as to free the assembly 
hall, thus leaving it solely for school assemblies, with lighting, 
seating and staging adjusted to this purpose; and also to make it 
possible to avoid too much stair climbing by pupils. The separate 
study room has other advantages. It permits of a better lighting 
scheme. It also makes possible such a distribution of classes for 
study purposes as to facilitate the better distribution of reference 
books, as well as the adjustment of the furniture, such as seating, 
tables, etc., to the work of particular groups. In some high 
schools the study hall scheme involves the seating of classes by 
departments, and the presence of one or more teachers of the par- 
ticular department seated in a room in order to direct the work 
of preparation of the pupils more intelligently. 

In other schools where it is not practicable to have both an 
assembly hall and a gymnasium, the same room may be used for 
both, the seating in such a case being with light folding airsch 
which may be quickly stacked when the room is required for 
physical training. 

Another method of disposing of the gymnasium exercises is to 
place the apparatus in the corridors and to use these for exercise. 
This is readily practicable where the cloak room lockers are put 
in the basement. However, such an arrangement detracts from 
the artistic possibilities of the corridors and should be used only 
as an urgent necessity. 

Along with lavatories, cloak rooms and other conveniences, the 
supervisor will not forget, if he is well trained, the need of pro- 
viding a bicycle run, and a room and work shop for the engineer 
or janitor. 

As has already been suggested special care will be required 
in planning and arranging laboratories and all rooms to be set 
aside for the motor and vocational side of high school training. 

Convenience and economy should be sought in all such cases. 
It is in such rooms that the most expensive portion of the equip- 



24 



UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 



ment of a high school is to be distributed. The rooms should there- 
fore be so selected, arranged, and constructed as to their interiors, 
as to insure the reasonable safety and greatest efficiency in use of 



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these materials. Usually the special teachers of these depart- 
ments should be freely consulted as to the best interior construc- 
tion and arrangement of such rooms. In the larger high schools 
a very economic arrangement of laboratory and lecture rooms is to 
put them in suites for the physical and biological sciences and the 
geography work, respectively. In this case a very satisfactory 
arrangement for the physical science suite is a tandem effect, 
with the lecture room between the two laboratories, store rooms 
opening off from each laboratory, a work room opening off from 
the physical laboratory. In the store room connected with the 
chemical laboratory it may be found desirable to construct a fire - 
proof closet for the safe keeping of such chemical supplies as may 
be liable to cause combustion. 



PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND THEIR EQUIPMENT 



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26 university of illinois 

Furnishing and Equipping the High School Building. 

The furnishing and equipping of a high school building is in 
itself a complex undertaking. As in planning the building so the 
furnishings for each room should be determined by the use that is 
to be made of it. Where school desks are used they should be, 
preferably, the adjustable desks; for there is no regulation size of 
school desks that is suitable for all the pupils of high school age. 
As well expect that a suit of ready made number ten Knicker- 
bockers would fit any boy ten years of age. These desks should 
always be those set on what is known as the jury base for conven- 
ience in cleaning floors. Some of the class rooms will be better 
adapted to their use if seated with chairs equipped with writing 
tablets; others will need tables and common chairs; and others 
still would better be seated with desks. In the case of laborator- 
ies, studio, and business rooms, specially adapted furniture will 
be called for. In all these particulars it will be worth while to 
examine carefully into the different types of furnishings before 
the contracts are made; and in every case the best constructed 
furniture as to materials and finish will be found most economical 
as well as most satisfactory. The furnishings of laboratories, such 
as tables, lockers, baths, lantern, gas and electricity should be 
such as are found in the best schools equipped especially for high 
school work. The lantern, indeed, may well be provided for in 
several of the high school rooms, and especially in the assembly 
hall. 

It pays to put good cases in the physical laboratory for the 
keeping of apparatus, and to get a good grade when purchasing 
the apparatus to fill them. These laboratories are usually expen- 
sive factors in the equipment of the school and no pains should be 
spared in providing for their proper care and use. For sugges- 
tive lists of apparatus and also lists of reliable houses furnishing 
apparatus see the High School Conference reports in the High 
School Manual published by the University. 

In the drawing studio there should be properly constructed 
desks and adjustable tables. An adjacent store room should con- 
tain such materials, models, etc., as may be supplied. Metal 
lockers should also be provided for the materials and instruments 
of individual pupils. 

For library purposes it will probably be found best in a large 



PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND THEIR EQUIPMENT 27 




28 UNIVERSITY OP ILLINOIS 

high school to have a central library room with full cataloging 
facilities, and book shelves distributed through the various class 
rooms or study rooms where such books as are needed for refer- 
ence in particular departments may be sent out properly recorded 
from the central library room. Reading tables for newspapers 
and magazines may be either in the central library room or the 
study rooms, as convenience may indicate. 

A very important consideration in carrying on the daily work 
of a high school is a system of signals for the movement of classes 
according to the daily program. The best systems that have thus 
far been devised are the self-winding pneumatic and the electric 
program clocks which may be connected up with separate clocks 
in the various class rooms or adjusted so as to ring signal bells 
simultaneously in all parts of the building. The advantages of 
the pneumatic clock are believed to surpass those of the electric. 

Laboratories in Small High Schools. 

In smaller high schools one room will have to serve for all 
laboratory and lecture work in science. This room should be fit- 
ted with a teacher's demonstration table, supplied with gas, water 
and electricity where these are available. The room should contain, 
besides, one good sink, tables enough for the experimental work of 
the pupils, a work bench with a kit of the more common tools for 
working in wood, an assortment of files, a pair of good pliers and 
a small iron vice and anvil. There should be cases with good 
closefitting doors for storing apparatus. An aquarium will add 
greatly to the interest in biology work. Common chairs may be 
used for seating. Besides the usual apparatus, which should be 
selected chiefly for individual work by the pupils, the room should 
have, if possible, a stereopticon and screen with lens attachments 
for microscopic work. 

ARTISTIC EFFECT IN HIGH SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. 

One of the difficult problems in all architecture is how to com- 
bine complete adaptation to purpose with symmetry and harmony 
of construction. Judging from what we most often see it would 
seem that our architects have been very slow in solving this pro- 
blem in connection with the building of school houses. The ap- 
pearance of such a building is bound to exercise considerable in- 
fluence upon the artistic tastes of a community. This has refer- 



PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND TEEIR EQUIPMENT 29 





Plate XV. Entrance to Evanston Township High School. 



30 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 

eDce both to the exterior effect as determined by the style of arch- 
itecture and to the interior finish and decoration. We may all 
agree that it is desirable to have a building possess a sort of in- 
dividuality even to the extent of reflecting its purpose; but there 
is a growing feeling that we have had enough of that general 
institutional type of architecture which has long been considered 
the proper thing in buildings of a large, general class to which 
school houses have been assumed to belong. Yet this modifying 
contingency occurs in the case of school architecture: Educa- 
tional work is in such a state of flux and evolution as to make it 
uncertain as to what type of building may be needed twenty or 
twenty-five years hence. It is evidently not desirable, therefore, 
that buildings intended to out- last the century should be erected. 
For this reason, perhaps, a rather severe type externally may 
well be adhered to, the chief considerations being sufficient sta- 
bility for present purposes, and the maximum of safety. Expen- 
sive cupolas and towers, for instance, may well be dispensed with 
along with the ponderous school bell of the past. However, the 
architect may still easily introduce some elements of ornamenta- 
tion in connection with entrances, windows, cornices or other ex- 
ternal features. 

It is the interior of the building, however, which offers most 
in the way of decorative effort. The stairways, corridors and as- 
sembly room, as well as the various class rooms, offer ample op- 
portunity for the presentation of artistic effects. From the tint-, 
ing or decorating of the walls and ceilings, the finishings of the 
wood casings, to the hanging of pictures and the placing of statu- 
ary, strength, beauty and refinement of taste may combine in such 
a manner as to add greatly to the wholesome influence of the 
school building, not only upon the pupils but upon the community 
at large. These also are things which someone who has to do with 
the fitting up of the school should understand and insist upon to 
the extent of the ability of the district to provide. 

In the matter of class rooms, for instance, undoubtedly the 
scheme which gives to each room a certain individuality should 
prevail. The psychological effect of such a change, as classes 
pass from room to room, and the advantages of it over a general 
monotony of color and effect is readily appreciable even to the 
casual observer. 

In some of our high school buildings the movement has begun 



PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND THEIll EQUIPMENT 



31 




32 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 

of decorating corridors with mural paintings. In the Joliet high 
school these paintings are of historic scenes connected with the 
notable series of explorations in which the man whose name the 
city bears was prominent. The DeKalb Township high school 
has also recently added some very attractive mural decorations 
and tablets of a symbolic character to the decorations of its main 
corridors. These beginnings suggest at once great possibilities 
in the way of making art a powerful reinforcement in the educa- 
tional work of the school. 

Quite a number of Illinois high schools have placed in corri- 
dors or in the assembly hall fine prints, paintings and statuary, 
the influence of which must become lasting as giving a distinct 
uplift to the character of the pupils brought daily in contact with 
them. 

HEATING AND VENTILATION. 

One of the most fundamental problems in the construction of 
a school building is that of its proper warming and ventilation. 
This is a problem all the more difficult to meet because few archi- 
tects can be considered technically expert enough to make suit- 
able provision for the necessary conditions. On the other hand 
those commercially interested in a given system of heating and 
ventilating are not the ones from whom such technical advice is 
to be expected. For even if they know the truth they are usually 
bound to represent their own interests in making a sale rather 
than the interests of the school community and the thousands of 
children who are to be affected by the construction of the high 
school building. If we put with this the mistakes which school 
officials make in the interests of what they wrongly believe to be 
economy it is easy to understand how readily a building may 
prove a dismal failure in these very important matters. 

The problem involves three points: Pure air, normal temper- 
ature, and the right degree of humidity. Of these three the 
matter of temperature is too apt to be the sole consideration in 
the placing of a heating plant. In these days of the demonstra- 
tion of the advantages of pure air as a means of curing some of 
the most malignant diseases it is not so difficult to convince people 
of the need of good ventilation for schools; but even now reform 
seems to come slowly. 

For purposes of heating there are in use, today, furnace heat; 



PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND THEIR EQUIPMENT 33 

direct radiation from coils heated by steam or by water; indirect 
radiation by which air warmed by passing over steam heated coils 
is introduced, properly tempered, into the rooms of the building; 
and direct- indirect radiation, which is a combination, in some form, 
of the second and third types. Furnace heating does very well 
for a small building of four to six rooms: but even then it should 
be reinforced by steam or water coils for corridors, and for por- 
tions of the building farthest from the furnace or liable to suffer 
by reason of adverse winds which affect the flow of heat through 
the hot air ducts when the pressure caused by inward leakage 
through windows, doors and walls becomes too great. 

Direct radiation may be very successfully employed in build- 
ings up to ten or twelve rooms in size if only some provision is 
made for ventilating the rooms. Such provision should also be 
made, of course, in the case of smaller buildings heated by fur- 
nace and coil combinations. The direct- indirect radiation system 
has some advantages as combining both the heating and ventil- 
ating. This is sometimes managed by placing the radiating coils 
near openings for the ingress of fresh air. In this case dampers 
or valves are provided for regulating the amount of cold air 
admitted; otherwise a strong wind would send draughts through 
the rooms on the side of the building exposed to its force. In 
connection with this plan also there must be some egress provided 
for the vitiated air. 

Another method of combining direct and indirect radiation is 
by placing coils around the rooms near the windows to take up 
the in-leakage of cold air, and at the same time introducing into 
the rooms air properly tempered by passing it over steam coils 
placed in the chamber or ducts through which the fresh air is 
received. This has been found to be a very economical plan of 
heating, and, when combined with proper vent-flues, it is a 
very satisfactory method of warming a school building. 

There are three general methods of securing the ventilation 
of school rooms: First is the old method of opening windows or 
doors to let in the fresh air. This does fairly well when the air 
without is sufficiently warm so as not to cause draughts or sudden 
chilling of the air within. In cold weather it is always danger- 
ous and more or less hurtful, and therefore to be used only as a 
last resort. Second is the gravitation system which is based on 
the principle which causes warm air to ascend and cold air to 



34 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 

rush in to vacated space. It is evident here that the variations 
in temperature between outside and inside air can not be relied 
upon alone to produce satisfactory results. Heated coils in the 
vent flues, or fires at the bottom of these flues, will be found neces- 
sary in order to secure results that are at all satisfactory. This 
system, used in connection with a combined direct and indirect 
system of radiation in the form of the second method described 
above, makes a very good plan of heating and ventilating build- 
ings that are comparatively small. In such cases the use of the 
heated coils in vent flues will be found best as a usual thing, al- 
though a small heater in the flue may serve the purpose better in 
warm weather. 

In buildings of more than ten or twelve rooms, however, it 
will be found best in the long run to adopt what is known as the 
mechanical system of ventilation by which the tempered pure air 
is forced into the school rooms by means of fans. At the same 
time direct radiation should be provided for by coils placed in the 
rooms. This makes it possible to furnish pure air in season and 
out of season, and is the only one of the three methods of ven- 
tilating which is capable of such adjustment as to insure sanitary 
conditions both as to purity and temperature. There are two 
ways of using fans for ventilating purposes: For driving pure 
air in or drawing vitiated air out. Of these two the first, known 
as the plenum system, is the better, because it makes possible an 
increase of pressure within which tends to check the in- leaking 
of cold air to the rooms. The exhaust system, on the other hand, 
tends to lower the inside pressure, relatively, and so increases 
the in- leakage of cold air, thus causing draughts. In some cases 
a combination of plenum and exhaust fans is most desirable. 

The chief additional cost of such a plan is in the original 
plant, which, if well constructed and operated by a skillful engi 
neer, will tend to reduce the cost of fuel, to say nothing about the 
increased healthfulness of the school. Of course it is necessary 
to see that the vent ducts are properly arranged so as to take off 
the impure air and yet not cause draughts in the room. This 
should be done under the direction of a skilled engineer other 
than any one commercially interested in the installment of the 
plant. 

For regulating temperatures there should be a thermostatic 
system connected with the heating and ventilating plant. The 



PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND THEIR EQUIPMENT 35 

temperature should be kept at from 68° to 70° and as nearly con- 
stant in this respect as possible. 

Some provision will also be found necessary with any system 
of heating for keeping the air supplied with the proper degree of 





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hiBhI 

EEShSnI 




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1 








■ "•■ . 











Plate XVII. John Swaney Consolidated School, 
McNabb, Illinois. 

moisture. For this a skilled engineer will also be able to arrange; 
and the engineer who operates the plant should be able to test 
the efficiency of the plant from time to time. The best average 
saturation or humidity for a school room has been found to be 50 
to 60 per cent. The amount of fresh air per minute for each pu- 
pil should be 30 to 40 cubic feet. 

In order properly to test the humidity of the air the engineer 
or school principal should be provided with some proper instru- 
ment. For determining the purity of the air a Wolpert's Air 
Tester will be found very satisfactory. 

For testing the amount of fresh air supply a Byram's four-inch 
anemometer with two index hands is highly recommended. 

If possible, especially in large cities, some device for screen- 
ing or washing the air admitted through the intakes should also 
be provided in order to remove dust and soot from the air which 
the children are to breathe. 

PROVISIONS FOR SAFETY IN CASE OF FIRE. 

The importance of this subject as emphasized by the fearful 
disasters of the past few years calls for special treatment here. 



36 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 

The desirability of constructing buildings as nearly lire-proof as 
possible has already been spoken of in discussing the school build- 
ing. Where it is not practicable to have a tire-proof building 
there is all the more reason for such other precautions as are possi- 
ble. Where furnace heat is used the furnace should be placed as 
far as practicable from the stairways, and all woodwork in the 
basement should be carefully covered with some non combustible 
material. A steel ceiling for the basement, or for the furnace room 
will be a great preventative in case of fire. Nothing but metal or 
brick should be used in the construction of vent flues and other 
open connections between floors. In the case of larger buildings 
the heating plant should be in a detached building constructed for 
the purpose. Stairways should always be constructed with a view 
to impeding the progress of fire in their direction. Where they are 
next to partition wails these walls should be of brick, or con- 
structed so that no air ducts are formed with lath or other wood 
linings. 

All doors for exits should swing outward or both ways, and 
stairways should be so placed with reference to them as to leave 
no catch-places to become blocked in case of a panic. Where 
double outer doors are used the one which is bolted should have 
face bolts easily operated from some point on a level with the door 
knob or handle. 

The ordinary iron fire-escapes such as are used on factories 
and business houses are entirely out of place on a school building 
Think of a crowd of frightened boys and girls trying to escape by 
such means! All outside stairways for such purposes should be 
of about the usual slant for stairways and provided with strong, 
well braced hand rails on each side. Stairways enclosed in brick 
walls are to be preferred. Probably the best contrivance of all is 
the tubular incline escape which is a protection from falling bricks 
or timbers, and can not easily be blocked in any way. These 
are matters in which considerations of cost are too often figured 
even against the value of human lives. No matter what the out- 
lay involved, the balance should always be on the life side. 

Besides fire-escapes there should be in all large buildings 
stand-pipes with hose attachments ready for quick use on each 
floor. Nothing smaller than two inch hose should be used, and 
none of the connections leading from the main should be less than 
two inches inside measure. Other precautions, such as buckets 



PUBLIC SCHOOL, BUILDINGS AND THEIR EQUIPMENT 37 

or barrels of water, where there is no water system, and chemical 
hand extinguishers, should be kept at convenient points in the 
building, and all teachers instructed in their use. 

THE SCHOOL JANITOR AND ENGINEER. 

It will readily be seen from what has been said in regard to 
heating, ventilating and sanitary conditions that much of the suc- 
cess of any plan in operation will depend upon the kind of man 
employed to supervise these things. As in the case of buildings 
and equipment, efforts to secure service merely on the ground of 
cheapness are very likely to prove to be bad economy. Whoever 
is charged with such weighty matters must be something more 
than a heaver of coal and a sweeper of floors. The only safe and 
economic plan is to find the man who is properly qualified as to 
intelligence, skill and moral character, and then to pay him a fair 
wage for such service. 

REFERENCES. 

Modern School Buildings (English), Felix Clay; School 
Architecture, E. M. Wheelwright; Modern American School 
Buildings, Warren R. Briggs; The School House, Moore; 
School Hygiene, Shaw; The Ideal School House, William H. 
Burnham, World's Work, Vol. II, pp. 866-71; The Essentials of 
School Building, American Architect, Vol. LXXX, p. 28. 



